Late Medieval India ( 13th to 18th centuries)

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Late Medieval India ( 13th to 18th centuries) It is an important phase of Indian history , which witnessed many political , social , cultural and religious changes. This period is mainly known for the rise and fall of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. This period can be mainly divided into the following phases:

1. Delhi Sultanate ( 1206-1526):

Major clans:

  1. Slave Dynasty ( 1206-1290) :
    1. Founder: Qutubuddin Aibak.
    1. Important rulers: Iltutmish , Razia Sultan , Balban.
    1. This period saw the establishment of the administrative structure and the beginning of Turkish influence in India.
  2. Khilji Dynasty ( 1290–1320) :
    1. Founder: Jalaluddin Khilji.
    1. Important Ruler: Alauddin Khilji.
    1. Defense against Mongol invasions , market reforms , and conquest of South India.
  3. Tughlaq Dynasty ( 1320-1414) :
    1. Founder: Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
    1. Important ruler: Muhammad bin Tughlaq , who adopted many controversial policies.
    1. Administrative expansion of Delhi.
  4. Sayyid Dynasty ( 1414–1451) :
    1. Founder: Khizr Khan.
    1. This dynasty was politically weak.
  5. Lodhi Dynasty ( 1451-1526) :
    1. Founder: Bahlol Lodhi.
    1. Last Ruler: Ibrahim Lodi.
    1. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat ( 1526) .

2. Mughal Empire ( 1526-1707):

Prominent Rulers:

  1. Babur ( 1526-1530) :
    1. Victory in the First Battle of Panipat.
    1. Laid the foundation of the empire.
  2. Humayun ( 1530-1556) :
    1. Defeat and exile by Sher Shah Suri.
    1. Regained power in 1555 .
  3. Akbar ( 1556-1605) :
    1. The Golden Age of the Mughal Empire.
    1. Establishment of Deen-e-Ilahi.
    1. Cultural , religious tolerance and administrative reforms.
  4. Jahangir ( 1605-1627) :
    1. Development of art and architecture.
    1. Influence of Noor Jahan.
  5. Shah Jahan ( 1628-1658) :
    1. Golden Age of Architecture(Taj Mahal , Red Fort).
    1. Conflict in the Deccan.
  6. Aurangzeb ( 1658-1707) :
    1. Religion-based policies.
    1. Maximum extent of the empire.
    1. Rajput , Maratha and Sikh conflicts.

3. Rise of regional powers:

  • After the fall of the Mughal Empire, regional powers emerged:
    • Maratha Empire.
    • Sikh Empire.
    • Modern Bengal , Awadh , Hyderabad.

Social and Cultural Characteristics:

  • Bhakti Movement : Tulsidas , Mirabai , Surdas.
  • Sufi Movement : Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti , Nizamuddin Auliya.
  • Language and Literature : Development of Hindi , Urdu and Persian.
  • Architecture : Qutub Minar , Taj Mahal , Fatehpur Sikri.

Financial condition:

  • Agriculture based economy.
  • Development of trade and crafts.
  • Foreign trade (Portuguese , Dutch , British).

Cultural interactions and political conflicts in late medieval India laid the foundation of modern Indian society.

1. Delhi Sultanate ( 1206-1526) 

Delhi Sultanate ( 1206–1526) It is an important political era of the Indian subcontinent , when various dynasties of Turkish and Afghan origin ruled in Delhi. It is mainly divided into five dynasties. The Delhi Sultanate laid the foundation of Islamic culture , administrative reforms , and architecture in India.

1. Slave Dynasty ( 1206-1290)

Establishment:

  • Founder: Qutbuddin Aibak , who was a slave and commander of Muhammad Ghori.
  • Qutbuddin Aibak established independent rule in Delhi after the death of Mohammad Ghori.

Prominent Rulers:

  1. Qutubuddin Aibak ( 1206-1210)
    1. Famous as ” Lakh Bakhsh” (for his charity).
    1. Architecture: Qutub Minar (construction begins) , Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque.
    1. Died after falling while playing polo in Lahore.
  2. Iltutmish ( 1211-1236)
    1. The most powerful ruler of the Slave Dynasty.
    1. Subah (province) system And Iqta System Development of.
    1. Made Delhi the permanent capital.
    1. Completed the construction of Qutub Minar.
    1. Defense against Mongol invasions.
    1. Daughter as his heir razia sultan was selected.
  3. Razia Sultan ( 1236–1240)
    1. The first woman ruler of India.
    1. Faced opposition from courtiers because of her gender.
    1. Defeated and died due to conspiracy.
  4. Giyasuddin Balban ( 1266-1287)
    1. One of the most powerful administrators of the Sultanate.
    1. ” A just and strict ruler”.
    1. In the court prostration And Pabos (touching of feet) implemented the custom.
    1. Strengthened the borders to stop Mongol invasions.

2. Khilji dynasty ( 1290-1320)

Establishment:

  • Founder: Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji .

Prominent Rulers:

  1. Alauddin Khilji ( 1296–1316)
    1. The most powerful Khilji ruler.
    1. Conquest of South India : Invasion of Devagiri , Warangal , Hoysala and Madurai under the leadership of Malik Kafur .
    1. Administrative Reforms:
      1. Market control.
      1. Monitoring of food items and prices.
      1. Detective system.
    1. Successfully resisted the Mongol invasions.

3. Tughlaq dynasty ( 1320-1414)

Establishment:

  • Founder: Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq .

Prominent Rulers:

  1. Muhammad bin Tughlaq ( 1325-1351)
    1. Controversial policies:
      1. Transfer of capital (from Delhi to Daulatabad).
      1. Circulation of copper coins.
    1. Effective control of South India.
    1. Visionary plans from administrative point of view but failed.
  2. Firoz Shah Tughlaq ( 1351-1388)
    1. Labor and peasant reforms.
    1. many canals , forts and cities.
    1. Propaganda of slavery.

4. Sayyid dynasty ( 1414-1451)

Establishment:

  • Founder: Khizr Khan .
  • Weak period of Delhi Sultanate.
  • The Sayyid dynasty remained weak due to Mughal invasions and the rise of regional powers.

5. Lodhi dynasty ( 1451-1526)

Establishment:

  • Founder: Bahlol Lodi .

Prominent Rulers:

  1. Sikandar Lodi ( 1489-1517)
    1. Administrative and agrarian reforms.
    1. Lodhi Gardens and the city of Agra were founded.
  2. Ibrahim Lodi ( 1517-1526)
    1. The last ruler.
    1. Defeat and death at the hands of Babur in the First Battle of Panipat ( 1526) .
    1. The Delhi Sultanate ended with the fall of the Lodi dynasty.

Features of Delhi Sultanate:

  1. Administrative Reforms:
    1. Iqta System and land revenue system.
    1. The Sultanate’s rulers incorporated the Persian language and Islamic law into the administration.
  2. Social impact:
    1. Influence of Islamic traditions and customs on Indian society.
    1. Harmony of Hindu and Muslim culture.
  3. Architecture:
    1. Qutub Minar , Alai Darwaza , Tughlaqabad Fort.
  4. Religious influences:
    1. Rise of Sufi and Bhakti movements.

The Delhi Sultanate influenced the administrative structure , art and culture in Indian history and paved the way for the rise of the Mughal Empire in India.

Mughal Empire ( 1526–1707)

Mughal Empire ( 1526–1707) It was an important era of the Indian subcontinent , in which various aspects of art , culture , administration and politics developed unprecedentedly. The empire was founded by Babur in 1526 and remained at its peak until the death of Aurangzeb ( 1707) .

Extent and Characteristics of the Mughal Empire:

1. Babur ( 1526-1530): Founder of the Mughal Empire

  • First Battle of Panipat ( 1526): Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi, ending the Delhi Sultanate.
  • Special achievements:
    • Use of modern warfare techniques (use of artillery).
    • Chunar and Gwalior Such as rights over areas.
    • Baburnama: Autobiography of Babur.
  • Babar laid the foundation of the empire , but he could not stabilize it.

2. Humayun ( 1530-1556): Struggle and reconquest

  • Conflict with Sher Shah Suri:
    • In 1540 Battle of Kannauj I was defeated.
    • Refuge in Persia during exile.
  • Recapture of Delhi in 1555 .
  • Death of Humayun ( 1556): Due to falling from the stairs of the library.

3. Akbar ( 1556-1605): Beginning of the Golden Age

  • Second Battle of Panipat ( 1556):
    • 14 , he defeated Hemu and took power.
  • Expansion of the Empire:
    • Gujarat , Bengal , Rajasthan , Malwa , and the Deccan.
    • Matrimonial relations and political alliances with Rajput kings.
  • Administrative Reforms:
    • The Mansabdari System: Categorisation of military and administrative posts.
    • Jaziya tax Removed (tax imposed on non-Muslims).
    • Establishment of Deen-e-Ilahi.
  • religious tolerance:
    • Study of the ideas of different religions (Ibadat Khana).
  • Architecture:
    • Construction of Fatehpur Sikri.
    • Agra Fort.
  • Navratna: Birbal , Tansen , Abul Fazal , Faizi , Raja Todarmal , Raja Man Singh.

4. Jahangir ( 1605-1627): The age of art and justice

  • Took power after Akbar.
  • Influence of Noor Jahan:
    • Jahangir’s wife Nur Jahan played an active role in administrative work.
  • Promotion of art and painting.
  • Development of Kashmir and Travel Details:
    • Jahangir was an admirer of the beauty of Kashmir.
  • Arrival of the East India Company ( 1615) .

5. Shah Jahan ( 1628-1658): Golden Age of Architecture

  • Major Achievements:
    • Taj Mahal (in memory of Mumtaz Mahal).
    • Red Fort (Delhi).
    • Jama Masjid.
    • The Peacock Throne.
  • A period of prosperity in the empire.
  • 1658 and imprisoned until his death.

6. Aurangzeb ( 1658-1707): Peak and Decline of the Empire

  • Expansion of the Empire:
    • Victory in the Deccan (Bijapur and Golconda).
    • Maximum expansion of the empire , but weak administration.
  • Religious policies:
    • Jaziya tax was reimposed.
    • Destruction of temples and construction of mosques.
  • Major conflicts:
    • Maratha , Sikh , Rajput and Jat rebellions.
    • Conflict with Shivaji.
  • Administrative weakness:
    • Discontent in the provinces due to rigid religious policies.
  • The decline of the Mughal Empire began with the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 .

Salient features of the Mughal Empire:

1. Administrative set up:

  • The Mansabdari System:
    • Officials appointed by the ruler , who were entrusted with military and civil functions.
    • Payment of troops from land revenue.
  • Centralised Administration:
    • The ruler has supreme authority.

2. Cultural contribution:

  • Architecture:
    • Taj Mahal , Red Fort , Agra Fort , Fatehpur Sikri.
  • Music and Literature:
    • Tansen , Abul Fazal , Faizi.
    • Development of Persian and Urdu.
  • Mughal Painting:
    • A mixture of Indian and Persian styles.

3. Religious and social policy:

  • Religious tolerance of Akbar and harshness of Aurangzeb.
  • Mixture of Hindu and Muslim society.

4. Economic system:

  • Economy based on agriculture.
  • Revenue reforms (Land measurement system of Todarmal).
  • Foreign trade: Arrival of European traders.

Decline of the Mughal Empire:

  1. Rise of Provincial Powers:
    1. Maratha , Sikh , Jat , Bengal , Hyderabad.
  2. Internal rebellion and administrative weakness.
  3. Influence of the British and other European powers.
  4. Aurangzeb’s harsh policies and management of the vast empire.

The Mughal Empire deeply influenced Indian society , culture and politics. The influence of their architecture and administrative system can be seen even in modern India.

Rise of regional powers 

The Rise of Regional Powers (18th Century) is an important phase in Indian history , when various regional powers emerged in India along with the decline of the Mughal Empire. These powers were politically , socially and culturally independent and made their presence felt in various parts of the Indian subcontinent. Several new kingdoms were formed during this period , and old empires , such as the Maratha and Sikh , strengthened.

Reasons for the Rise of Regional Powers:

  1. Decline of the Mughal Empire:
    1. the death of Aurangzeb ( 1707) the Mughal Empire weakened.
    1. The centralization of the empire eroded due to succession struggles and weak rulers.
  2. Power of Regional Princely States:
    1. As the Mughal Empire weakened, the provincial rulers and governors declared independence.
  3. alien invasion:
    1. Nadir Shah ( 1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali ( 1761) weakened Delhi and its surrounding areas.
  4. Influence of local rulers:
    1. Local kings , such as the Marathas , Sikhs , Rajputs , and Jats established independent power in their respective regions.
  5. Arrival of British and European Powers:
    1. European companies increased trade as well as political influence.

Main regional powers:

1. Maratha Empire

  • Leadership:
    • Shivaji (Founder) , Peshwa (Prime Minister) system.
    • At its peak under Peshwa Balaji Bajirao in the 18th century .
  • Area:
    • Western India , Deccan , and parts of Northern India.
  • Importance:
    • Defeat by Ahmed Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat ( 1761) .
    • Partition of the empire and formation of the Maratha Confederacy.
  • Contribution:
    • Guerrilla warfare system and the concept of Hindavi Swarajya.

2. Sikh Empire

  • Leadership:
    • Guru Gobind Singh founded the Khalsa sect.
    • Later Maharaja Ranjit Singh formed the Sikh Empire ( 1799-1849) .
  • Area:
    • Punjab , Kashmir , and the North-Western Areas.
  • Importance:
    • An organized military force and religion-based state.
    • Conflict with the British Empire.

3. Nawab State of Bengal

  • Leadership:
    • Independent Nawabs (Mir Jafar , Mir Qasim).
  • Area:
    • Modern Bengal , Bihar , and Odisha.
  • Importance:
    • Victory of the East India Company in the Battle of Plassey ( 1757) .
    • Foundation of British rule with the fall of Bengal.

4. Nawab State of Awadh

  • Leadership:
    • Saadat Ali Khan and his descendants.
  • Area:
    • Modern Uttar Pradesh and surrounding areas.
  • Importance:
    • Development of Culture and Art (Lucknow).
    • under British domination.

5. Nizam State of Hyderabad

  • Leadership:
    • Mir Qamaruddin, founder of the Asaf Jahi dynasty.
  • Area:
    • Part of modern Telangana , Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
  • Importance:
    • Political freedom and trade relations.

6. Rajput States

  • Leadership:
    • States of Rajputana like Jaipur , Jodhpur , Udaipur.
  • Area:
    • In and around Rajasthan.
  • Importance:
    • Autonomy after the decline of the Mughal Empire.

7. Jat and Rohilla State

  • Leadership:
    • Jat ruler of Bharatpur (Surajmal).
    • Rohilla Pathan (Afghan).
  • Area:
    • Jats: Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
    • Rohilla: Rohilkhand (Uttar Pradesh).

Influence of Regional Powers:

Social impact:

  1. Regional rulers promoted local art and culture.
  2. Diversity and cultural exchange between different societies.

Political influence:

  1. Political fragmentation in India.
  2. European powers got an opportunity to strengthen their position in India.

Economic Impact:

  1. Development of local trade and crafts.
  2. Regional tax systems and independent revenue policies.

conclusion:

The rise of regional powers paved the way for decentralization in Indian politics. This era saw different regions of the Indian subcontinent flourishing culturally , socially, and politically. However , this very fragmentation also paved the way for the British and other European powers to establish influence in India , resulting in the era of colonialism in India.

Social and cultural characteristics 

Social and Cultural Characteristics (Late Medieval India)
The period from the 13th to the 18th century was an era of social and cultural changes in Indian history. This period was under the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire , in which significant changes took place in Indian society. During this period, various religions , cultures and languages mingled , which gave rise to a rich and multi-layered society.

1. Social characteristics:

( a) Caste system and social structure

  1. Caste System in Hindu Society:
    1. The division of castes was rigid.
    1. Brahmins , Kshatriyas , Vaishyas , and Shudras remained.
    1. Caste-based occupations and rights were limited.
  2. Structure of Muslim Society:
    1. Muslim society was also divided into two classes:
      1. Ashraf: Upper class (Arabic , Persian , Turkish).
      1. Ajalaf: Lower class (local converted Muslims).
  3. Status of women:
    1. The status of women was lower than that of men.
    1. Purdah system and child marriage were prevalent.
    1. Sati system , dowry system and widow remarriage Issues such as prohibition were prevalent.
  4. Lower Classes and Slavery:
    1. The lower classes of society (peasants , workers , slaves) were exploited economically and socially.
    1. Slavery was prevalent , especially in the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal court.

( b) Religion and religious co-existence

  1. Influence of Islam:
    1. Islam spread under the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire.
    1. Sufi saints connected people through religion and spirituality.
  2. Bhakti Movement:
    1. Saints such as Mirabai , Tulsidas , Kabir , and Guru Nanak taught social harmony transcending caste and religion .
  3. Rise of Sikhism:
    1. Guru Nanak founded Sikhism , which was based on equality and service.
  4. Fusion of Hindu and Muslim culture:
    1. festivals , customs , and lifestyles.

2. Cultural characteristics:

( a) Art and Architecture

  1. Architecture of Delhi Sultanate:
    1. Qutub Minar , Alai Darwaza , Tughlaqabad Fort.
    1. A fusion of Islamic and Indian architecture.
  2. Mughal Architecture:
    1. Taj Mahal , Red Fort , Fatehpur Sikri.
    1. Beautiful gardens , domes , and arches.
    1. Combination of Persian and Indian styles in architecture.

( b) Literature and language

  1. Persian language:
    1. Persian was the court language.
    1. Scholars like Abul Fazal and Faizi enriched Persian literature.
  2. Development of Urdu:
    1. Urdu language developed from the combination of Hindi and Persian.
    1. It became the language of common people and poets.
  3. Devotional Literature:
    1. Tulsidas’ “Ramcharitmanas” and the works of Surdas.
    1. Bhakti literature encouraged the Hindi language.
  4. Sufi and Saint Literature:
    1. Sufi poets expressed the spirit of love and devotion.

( c) Music and dance

  1. Evolution of Music:
    1. Development of Hindustani music (North India) and Carnatic music (South India).
    1. Musicians like Tansen used to grace the Mughal court.
  2. dance:
    1. Kathak dance developed.
    1. Dance and music had a special place in the courts.

( d) Science and technology

  1. Astrology and Astronomy:
    1. Development of Astronomy in the Times of Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar and Jahangir.
  2. Treatment:
    1. Development of Unani and Ayurvedic systems.

( e) Religious tolerance and mixing in society:

  1. Sufi Movement:
    1. Sufi saints , like Nizamuddin Auliya and Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti spread the message of humanity and brotherhood.
  2. Bhakti Movement:
    1. Saint Kabir , Mirabai , Guru Nanak tried to bridge the gap between religions.
  3. Festivals and Traditions:
    1. Diwali , Eid , Holi promoted mutual goodwill in the society.

conclusion:

Late medieval India witnessed many important changes in the social and cultural sphere. Bhakti and Sufi movements promoted social harmony , while architecture , music , and literature made India culturally rich. This era is a symbol of collective culture and diversity in Indian history.

Agriculture based economy 

Agriculture based economy The main feature of late medieval India ( 13th to 18th century) was agriculture. During this period agriculture was not only the main source of livelihood for most people , but it was also the basis of the state’s revenue system and social structure.

1. Characteristics of an agriculture-based economy:

( a) Land use and farming system

  1. Mainstay of farming:
    1. Agriculture was done in traditional way.
    1. Irrigated and rain-fed agriculture was prevalent.
  2. Main Crops:
    1. Cereal: Rice , wheat , sorghum , millet.
    1. Commercial Crops: Cotton , sugarcane , indigo , spices.
    1. Fruits and Vegetables: Mango , banana , potato , brinjal.
  3. land ownership:
    1. The land was owned by the ruler or feudal lord.
    1. Land was given on rent to the farmers.
  4. Means of irrigation:
    1. Canals , wells , ponds , and lakes.
    1. Construction of major irrigation projects during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal period.

( b) Efforts to increase agricultural production

  1. Reforms in the Mughal period:
    1. Sher Shah Suri and Akbar implemented the land measurement system.
    1. Tax system based on crop productivity.
  2. Revenue System:
    1. Revenue from land provided most of the state’s income.
    1. Todarmal’s Settlement System (during Akbar’s rule):
      1. Measurement and classification of land.
      1. Revenue determination based on type of crop and yield.
  3. Farming Equipment:
    1. Plough , oxen , hoes , and other local tools.
  4. Use of Labour:
    1. Farmers and their families were engaged in agricultural activities.
    1. Wage labourers also helped in farming.

( c) Farmers and their lives

  1. Situation of farmers:
    1. Most of the farmers were poor.
    1. They had to face high taxes and exploitation by the feudal lords.
    1. Farmers dependent on agriculture were also at risk of natural disasters.
  2. Slavery and Bonded Labour:
    1. Farmers often had to become bonded labourers due to their inability to repay their loans.

( d) Relationship between agriculture and economy

  1. Revenue and Taxes:
    1. Revenue from agriculture was the economic backbone of the empire.
    1. The state took 1/3 or 1/2 of the crop as tax.
  2. Trade and Commerce:
    1. Surplus production was sold in local and international markets.
    1. indigo , cotton , and spices were exported to foreign countries.
  3. Village Based Economy:
    1. The villages were the centres of agricultural production.
    1. Every village was self-sufficient and apart from farmers, other trades like blacksmiths , carpenters , and potters also operated here.

2. Challenges of agriculture based economy:

( a) Natural disasters

  • famine , flood and drought used to damage the crops.
  • Farmers had limited capacity to store food grains.

( b) Exploitation and taxation system

  • The life of the farmers was difficult because of high taxes.
  • Even during the Mughal period, farmers had to pay taxes in grains or cash.

( c) Decrease in production

  • Production was limited due to limited technology and equipment.
  • There was a shortage of fertilizers and improved seeds.

3. Mughal Empire and Agriculture

  • Revenue Reforms of Akbar:
    • Provided stability to farmers.
    • Determination of taxes based on the fertility of the land.
  • Promotion of Agriculture:
    • Large scale irrigation projects were initiated to increase agricultural production.
  • Agriculture and Trade:
    • The production of cash crops like cotton and indigo boosted trade.

4. Influence of agriculture based society:

  1. Effects on Social Structure:
    1. The inequality between peasants and feudal lords persisted.
    1. Agriculture was the base of the society , but farmers were victims of exploitation.
  2. economic prosperity:
    1. Agricultural surplus encouraged trade and urbanisation.
    1. During the Mughal period, India was called the “Golden Bird”.
  3. Employment at local level:
    1. Agriculture and related activities provided employment to most of the rural population.

5. Conclusion:

The agricultural economy shaped society and the state in late medieval India. Although technological progress was limited , agricultural production provided stability to Indian society and economy. This system suffered from exploitation and challenges , but it proved to be a dynamic system of the time. Played an important role in maintaining the political and economic system of the country.

Development of Trade And Crafts 

late medieval India ( 13th to 18th centuries) Trade was an important aspect of the Indian economy. During this period local , regional , and international trade expanded and craftsmanship provided economic prosperity and cultural diversity to the society. During the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, the expansion of trade routes , the development of trading cities , and the development of craftsmanship led to the rise of the Indian economy. New centres emerged.

1. Development of business:

( a) Internal trade

  1. Local Markets and Haats:
    1. Weekly markets (Haat) were prevalent in villages and towns.
    1. The products of farmers and artisans were transacted locally.
  2. Regional Trade:
    1. Cotton , grains , spices , and craft products were exchanged regionally.
    1. Trade routes linked rural and urban areas.
  3. Major trading cities:
    1. Delhi , Lahore , Agra , Kannauj , Surat , and Jaipur were major centers of trade.

( b) International trade

  1. Asian Trade Routes:
    1. India traded with Persia , Arabia , Central Asia , and China.
    1. Trade grew through the Silk Route and sea routes.
  2. Medieval India and Europe:
    1. Spices , textiles , gemstones , and handicrafts were exported to European countries.
    1. After the arrival of Vasco-da-Gama, European traders showed keen interest in Indian trade.
  3. export and import:
    1. Exports: Spices , cotton , silk , indigo , jewels.
    1. Import: Horses , paper , tools , and silk.

( c) Trade guild

  1. Merchants Association:
    1. Guilds of merchants controlled the trade.
    1. These organizations assisted in local and international trade.
  2. Parsi and Gujarati traders:
    1. Parsi and Gujarati merchants were active in maritime trade.
    1. The ports of Gujarat (Surat and Cambay) were major trading centres.

2. Development of craftsmanship:

( a) Major areas of craftsmanship

  1. textile industry:
    1. The textile industry in India achieved widespread prosperity.
    1. In Bengal and South India, muslin , silk , and cotton textiles were prominent.
  2. Metallurgy and Jewelry Manufacturing:
    1. Utensils and jewellery were made from gold , silver , copper , and brass.
    1. Jaipur , Banaras , and Lucknow were major centres of jewellery manufacturing.
  3. Handicrafts and Wood Work:
    1. Wood carving and furniture manufacturing.
    1. Shawl and Carpet Weaving in Kashmir.
  4. Paper and painting:
    1. Manufacture of paper and development of Mughal miniature painting art.

( b) Conservation of Artwork

  1. Contribution of Mughal Rulers:
    1. The rulers patronised and encouraged craftsmanship.
    1. Royal workshops (karkhanas) were established.
  2. Social significance:
    1. Artisans and craftsmen were an integral part of the society.
    1. His art met local and international demands.

( c) Major handicraft centres

  1. Surat and Ahmedabad:
    1. A major centre for textiles and spices.
  2. Banaras:
    1. A major centre for Banarasi silk and handicrafts.
  3. Lahore and Agra:
    1. Gemstone accessories and Persian style art.
  4. Kashmir:
    1. Woolen clothes , carpet and shawl manufacturing.

3. Factors in the development of trade and crafts:

( a) Political stability:

  • Political stability during the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire encouraged trade and craftsmanship.

( b) International Demand:

  • Indian textiles , spices , and gems were in great demand in international markets.

( c) Development of Ports:

  • Surat , Cochin , and Machilipatnam became trading centres.

( d) Arrival of foreign traders:

  • Arab , Persian , and European traders were buyers of Indian products.

4. Influence of trade and crafts:

( a) Economic Impact:

  • Trade and craftsmanship increased India’s economic prosperity.
  • Farmers and artisans got employment.

( b) Social impact:

  • Rise of artisan and merchant classes.
  • Cultural exchange in society.

( c) Cultural influences:

  • Handicrafts and arts gave Indian culture global recognition.

5. Conclusion:

The development of trade and craftsmanship in late medieval India was not only the basis of the Indian economy , but also a means of uplifting society and culture. Crafts and trade made India an important part of the global trade system. However , the arrival of foreign powers and colonialism challenged this prosperous system.

Foreign trade (Portuguese , Dutch , British) 

Foreign trade and the arrival of European powers ( the Portuguese , Dutch , English and French) in India was a subject that had a profound impact on the economy and society of late medieval India. These powers tried to gain control over India’s maritime trade and gradually established influence in India’s politics and economy.

1. India’s position before foreign trade:

  • India was a major centre of world trade.
  • Commodities such as spices , silk , cotton , and jewelry were in great demand in global markets.
  • Indian trade was flourishing with Persia , Arabia , China , and Southeast Asia.

2. Arrival of foreign powers in India:

( a) Portuguese ( 1498):

  1. Arrival of Vasco-da-Gama:
    1. 1498 Vasco-da-Gama reached the port of Calicut (Kozhikode).
    1. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to come to India.
  2. Main objectives:
    1. Spice trade.
    1. Control over sea routes.
  3. Major Ports:
    1. Goa , Daman , and Diu.
  4. Effect:
    1. The Portuguese took control of the sea routes.
    1. They sent trade goods (spices , silk , tea) to Europe.
    1. Spread Christianity through missionary activities.

( b) Dutch ( 1602):

  1. Formation of the Dutch East India Company:
    1. 1602 the Netherlands (Dutch) created the “Dutch East India Company” for trade.
    1. His main objective was to gain control over the spice trade.
  2. Major centres:
    1. Cochin , Nagapattinam , Coromandel Coast.
  3. Business Activities:
    1. The Dutch also established trading posts in Malacca , Java , and Sumatra.
    1. They were mainly engaged in the trade of spices (cloves , nutmeg).
  4. Competition from the British and the French:
    1. Dutch influence declined in the 18th century .
    1. The British acquired trade dominance in India.

( c) The English ( 1600):

  1. Formation of the British East India Company:
    1. The “British East India Company” was established in 1600 .
    1. 1615, Jahangir gave the British the right to trade in Surat.
  2. Major trading centers:
    1. Surat , Madras (Chennai) , Bombay (Mumbai) , Calcutta (Kolkata).
  3. Merchandise:
    1. Silk , spices , cotton clothes , indigo.
  4. Political Dominance:
    1. Along with trade, the British started gaining political power.
    1. After the Battle of Plassey of 1757 and the Battle of Buxar of 1764 , the British increased their control over Indian politics.

( d) French ( 1664):

  1. Formation of the French East India Company:
    1. 1664 France established the “French East India Company”.
    1. Their aim was to gain control over Indian trade goods.
  2. Major centres:
    1. Puducherry (Pondicherry) , Chandannagar , Mahe.
  3. Conflict with the British:
    1. There was a trade and political conflict between the British and the French.
    1. 1761 the French began to lose their influence in India.

3. Foreign trade and Indian economy:

( a) Merchandise:

  1. Exports:
    1. Spices , silk , cotton textiles , indigo , tea.
  2. Import:
    1. , horses , metals , and tools from Europe .

( b) Trade routes and ports:

  • Surat , Calicut , Cochin , Bombay , and Madras became major ports for maritime trade.
  • Foreign powers used to export Indian goods from these ports.

( c) Impact on India:

  1. Economic Impact:
    1. Foreign traders exploited Indian textiles and spices.
    1. Indian craftsmen and artisans became subservient to foreign traders.
  2. Social and Cultural Influences:
    1. Spread of Christianity.
    1. Influence of European traditions and lifestyle.
  3. Political influence:
    1. The British and the French gained political power through trade.
    1. The British gained control of the Indian Empire.

4. Competition among European powers:

  • The Portuguese , Dutch , British , and French were rivals of each other.
  • The British gradually established a monopoly over Indian trade.
  • the 18th century , the British East India Company became the dominant power in India.

5. Conclusion:

Foreign trade made the economy of late medieval India a part of the global trading system. However , the arrival of foreign powers weakened Indian crafts and industries. Through trade, European powers succeeded in establishing political control in India , which ultimately led to colonial rule.

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